Authenticity is a convergence problem. No single patina, certificate, test, style, or expert opinion should carry the whole conclusion.
Evidence-first sequence
- Photograph the whole object, front, back, base, interior, edges, breaks, marks, mounts, labels, and associated documents.
- Record dimensions, weight, material, construction, surface, condition, repairs, seller, location, and every provenance statement exactly.
- Separate observed facts from attribution, family history, dealer language, translation, and collector labels.
- Compare museum objects, excavation reports, typologies, scientific evidence, old catalogs, and lawful collection records.
- State identity, date, origin, authenticity, and legal status only as strongly as the evidence supports.
Seven evidence columns
| Column | Questions |
|---|---|
| Material | Is the material compatible with the proposed place, period, object type, and workshop? |
| Manufacture | Do forming, casting, drilling, carving, joining, and finishing methods fit? |
| Style and typology | Does the complete form match documented examples rather than a general ancient look? |
| Surface and condition | Are wear, corrosion, deposits, breaks, and repairs coherent across protected and exposed areas? |
| Scientific testing | Was the right method used, sampled correctly, interpreted cautiously, and tied to the exact object? |
| Provenance | Can the modern ownership chain be independently tested? |
| Legal status | Is title, export, import, and current transfer lawful? |
Certificates
A certificate is evidence only to the extent that the issuer is identifiable, independent, qualified, insured, transparent about methods, and willing to stand behind the exact object. Many market certificates merely restate a seller’s opinion.
Provenance is not optional: Ask for the ownership chain, invoices, export basis, import history, prior publications, restoration record, and exact seller representations. “Old collection,” “estate find,” and “from Europe” are not independently testable provenance.
Search clearly labeled replicas and reference books
For high-risk cultural material, use the marketplace for clearly labeled replicas, casts, museum-shop objects, and reference books rather than undocumented archaeological pieces.
Search clearly labeled replicas and reference books